Chapter 17 Nutrition

• Know all Definitions throughout the chapter
• Table 17.4 Know all of the Essential Amino Acids
• Table 17.6 Recommended Protein Intake
• Daily recommendations for fiber
• Specific recommendations for endurance athletes
• Fatty acids
• Lipids in the body
• Daily recommendations and importance of water
• Table 17.11The effects of dehydration
• Be familiar with guidelines for altering body composition
• Risks of very low calorie diets
• Calorie count for proteins, carbohydrates, fats

Definition

• Nutrition – Process by which living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and repair of tissues. 

Standards of Practice and Scope of Practice: Personal Trainers versus licensed Dieticians

• Should be familiar with concepts of nutrition. 
• Professional, legally qualified to practice in the field of nutrition is Registered Dietician(RD). RD is specialized in food and nutrition expert with extensive training.
• Practice of nutrition is governed by national credentialing programs and state licensing laws. 46 states have specific laws that explicitly define scope and practice for nutrition and dietetics professionals, and performing these duties without a license could be considered illegal.

Daily Energy Needs

• Calorie – amount of heat energy required to raise temp of 1 gram of water 1C. 
  
• Calorie – Unit expression of energy equal to 1,000 calories. Amount of heat energy required to raise 1 KG or liter of water 1C or kilocalorie.
• Kilocalorie – equal to 1,000 calories, raise 1kg of water 1 degree C.
• Estimated total energy expenditure(TEE) is defined as amount of energy(calories) spent, on average, in a typical day. TEE the sum of three different energy components:
• Resting metabolic rate(RMR) 70% of TEE., Thermic effect of food(TEF) amount of energy expended above RMR as a result of processing of food, TEF typically accounts for 6-10% of TEE. Energy expended during physical activity – Approx 20% of TEE.

Resting metabolic rate

• Accounts for 70% of total daily energy expenditure in sedentary person. Affected by wide variety of factors including age, sex, genetics, hormonal changes, body size, body comp.
• 27 million Americans have thyroid related disorders.
• Cardiovascular meds can reduce RMR from 4 to 12%. Chemo can reduce RMR from 6 to 11%. Long term use of growth hormone increases RMR by 12%. Thyroid meds and hypothyroidism can increase RMR by 17%.
• Thermic effect of food – Process of digestion requires energy, increase in energy expenditure after meal is called thermic effect of food (TEF) 6-10% of total energy expenditure.

Estimating Total Daily Energy Expenditure

• Weight(lbs) x 10 = RMR
• RMR x activity factor = TEE
• Even most commonly used formulas can have up to 20% variance in over or understimating resting metabolism and total energy expenditure.

Protein

• Protein – Amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Build and repair body tissues and structures. Involved in synthesis of hormones, enzymes, and other regulatory peptides.
  

Structure of Protein

• Made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Body uses approx 20 amino acids to build its many different proteins. Arranging amino acids in different sequences yields the body’s myriad of proteins.
• Two general classes of amino acids: essential and nonessential.
• Essential amino acids cannot be manufactured in the body – therefore must be obtained from food supply or some other exogenous source.
• Nonessential – body can manufacture them from dietary nitrogen and fragments of carbs and fat.
• Arginine and histidine are semiessential amino acids.

 

Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization

• Proteins must be broken down into constitutent amino acids before body can use them or repair tissue or as energy substrate. Fate of amino acids after digestion depends on body’s homeostatic needs, which can range from tissue replacement or tissue addition to need for energy.
• Proteins encounter HCL in stomach which uncoils(denatures) protein so that digestive enzymes can begin dismantling peptide bonds. The enzyme pepsin begins to cleave protein strand into smaller polypeptides(strands of several amino acids) and single amino acids.
• As protein fragments leave stomach and enter small intestine, pancreatic and intestinal proteases(protein enzymes) continue to dismantle the protein fragments.
• Resulting dipeptides, tripeptides, and single amino acids are then absorbed through the intestinal wall into enterocytes and released into the blood supply to the liver.
• Once in bloodstream, free-form amino acids have several possible fates: they can be used for protein synthesis(building and repairing tissues or structures), immediate energy, or potential energy(fat storage).
• Amino acids are first deaminated(stripped of amine group), allowing remaining carbon skeleton to be used for production of glucose or ketones to be used for energy. Removed amine group produces ammonia, which is converted to urea in the liver and excreted as urine by the kidneys.
• If intake exceeds need for synthesis, then proteins are deaminated, carbon fragments stored as fat.

Protein in Foods

• If food supplies all essential amino acids in appropriate ratios it is called complete protein. If food source is low or lacking in one or more essential amino acids it is called incomplete protein. 
• Biologic value (BV) measure frequently used when discussing protein sources, BV is measure of protein quality, how well it satisfies body’s essential amino acid needs.
• Protein source with higher score provides amino acid profile that is more closely related to needs of the human body.
• Major sources of complete proteins are animal sources, dairy and meats. Sources of incomplete protein include grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, and other vegetables.

Negative Energy Balance

• During negative energy balance amino acids are used to assist in energy production, a term called gluconeogenesis. Depleted glycogen increases gluconeogenesis. Supported by released of amino acids from structural proteins to maintain glucose homeostasis. 

Protein’s Effect on Satiety

• More satiating than fat or carbs. Studies indicate protein has direct effect on satiety. 

Protein Intake Recommendations

• Recommended Daily Allowance(RDA) for protein is 0.8 g/kg/day. 10 to 35% of total caloric intake. 
• High protein diet defined as higher than 35%. Risk factor for heart disease and some types of cancer.

 

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates – Neutral compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen(such as sugars, starches, and celluloses), which makes up a large portion of animal foods. 
  
• Sugars(simple), starches(complex), and fiber. Monosaccharide is single unit of sugar, many of which are connected to make starches. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Disaccharides(two sugar units) include sucrose(or common sugar), latose(or milk sugar), and maltose.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units linked together and found in foods that contain starch and fiber. Called complex carbohydrates and include starch found in plants, seed, and roots.
• Dietary fiber is part of plant that cannot be digested by human gut enzymes and passes through small intestine and colon.

Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization

• Simple sugars are very easily digested. Double sugars such as table sugar require some digestive action but are not nearly as complex as starches. Starches require prolonged enzymatic action to be broken down into simple sugars.
• Rate at which ingested carbs raise blood sugar and its accompanying effect on insulin release is referred to as the glycemic index(GI).
• Mixed meals or protein, carbs, and fat can alter the glycemic effect of single foods.
• All carbs are eventually converted into simple sugars such as glucose or fructose.

Role of Fiber in Health

• Higher fiber intake is associated with lower incidence of heart disease and certain types of cancer. 
• Insoluble fiber does not absorb or dissolve in water. It passes through the digestive tract close to its original form. Insoluble fiber offers many benefits to intestinal health, including a reduction in the risk and occurrence of colorectal cancer, hemmrrhoids, and constipation.

Carbs and Performance

• As duration of activity increases, available glucose and glycogen diminish. Increasing reliance on fat as fuel source. 

Carbohydrate Intake Performance

• 6 and 10g/kg/day of carbs is recommended. 45 to 65% of total caloric intake. Complex carbs constitute majority of calories.
• Before exercise consume high carb meal 2 to 4 hours. Glycogen stores are lowered by as much as 80% in the mornings.
• Endurance athletes consume between 30 and 60g of carbs every hour to maintain blood glucose levels.
• One hour of intense cycling was improved by 12% with consumption of 53 ounces of water containing 79g of carbs.
• Timing of carbs important for maximizing recovery, recommended consuming 1.5g per KG of carbs within 30 mins of completing exercise to maximize glycogen replenishment. Delaying intake by even 2 hours can decrease total muscle glycogen synthesis by 66%. PWO environment hasten glycogen repletion as a result of increased blood flow to muscles and increased sensitivity of cells to effects of insulin.

Lipids

• Lipids – Group of compounds that includes triglycerides(fats and oils), phospholipids, and sterols.
  

Fatty Acids

• Saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated classified as monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
• Polyunsaturated provide important essential fatty acids(fats that cannot be manufactured by the body but are essential for proper health and functioning).

Function of Lipids

• Lipids(or fats) are most concentrated source of energy in the diet. One gram of fat yields approximately 9 calories when oxidized.
• Fats act as carries for fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Vitamin D aids in absorption of calcium. Fats are also important for conversion of carotene to vitamin A.
• Fats are involved in: cellular membrane structure and function, precursors to hormones, cellular signals, regulation and excretion of nutrients in cells, surrounding protecting and holding in place organs, insulating body from environmental temp changes, prolonging digestive process by slowing stomach’s secretion of HCL, longer lasting feeling of satiety, initiating release of hormone cholecystokinin(CCK) which contributes to satiety.

Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization

• Fat becomes emulsified in intestine so that pancreatic enzymes can break triglycerides down into two fatty acids and a monoglyceride. These are absorbed through intestinal walls into blood.
• In intestinal wall they are reassembled into triglycerides that are then released into the lympth in the form of lipoprotein called chylomicron. Chylomicrons from the lymph move to the blood. Triglyceride content of chylomicron is removed by action of the enzyme lipoprotein lipase (LPL), and the released fatty acids are taken up by the tissues. Throughout the day triglycerides are constantly cycled in and out of tissues, including muscles, organs, and adipose.

Recommendations

• 20 to 35% of total calories from fat. 
• Dietary fats stimulate release of CCK, hormone that signals satiety. Fat slow digestion of foods and thus nutrient content in the bloodstream.
• Medium chain triglycerides are more rapidly absorbed, they do not require incorporation into chylomicrons for transport but can enter systemic circulation directly providing readily avaialble, concentrated source of energy. MCT could benefit endurance performance by suppling exogenous energy source in addition to carbohydrates during exercise and increase plasma free acids(FFA), sparing muscle glycogen.

Water

• Sedentary men and women should consume 3L (13 cups) and 2.2L(9 cups) of water per day. Those in fat loss programs should drink additional 8 ounces of water for every 25 pounds they carry above their ideal weight. Water intake should be increased if individual is exercising briskly or residing in a hot climate.
• 60% of adult human body by weight.
• Benefits of consuming adequate water: endocrine gland function improves, fluid retention is alleviated, liver functions improve, natural thirst returns, metabolic functions improve, nutrients are distributed throughout body, body-temperature regulation improves, blood volume is maintained.
• Fluid loss of 2% of body weight will adversely affect circulatory functions and decrease performance levels. Thirst alone is poor indicator of how much water is needed.
• Athletes consistently consume inadequate fluid volume, managing to replace only 50% of sweat losses. Do not being practice session or endurance comp until body is at or slightly above standard weight.
• Drink 1.75 to 2.75 cups 2 hours before exercise. Drink 6 to 12 ounces of fluid every 15 to 20 minutes. Fluids should be cold because of more rapid gastric emptying.
• If exercise exceeds 60 mins use sports drink(containing up to 8% carbohydrate).
• When exercising for less than 60 minutes, water is experts’ choice for fluid replacement
• Ingest 16 to 24 ounces of fluid for every pound of body weight lost after an exercise bout, especially if rapid rehydration is necessary, as in twice-a-day training.

 

Altering Body Composition

Basic nutritional guidelines for altering body composition for fat loss

• Small decreases in food and beverage calories and increase physical activity.
• Distribute protein, carbs, and fat throughout day.
• Consume less than 10% of cals from saturated fat.
• Choose whole grains and fiber rich fruits and veggies over refined grains and simple sugars.
• Limit alcohol.
• Schedule no fewer than four and as many as six meals a day.
• Avoid empty calories and highly processed foods.
• Drink plenty of water(minimum 9 to 13 cups a day)
• Have clients weigh and measure food at least 1 week. Make them more aware of caloric values and serving sizes.

For lean body mass gain

• 4-6 meals a day. Spread protein intake throughout day.
• Post workout window of opportunity, ingestion of proteina nd carbs within 90 mins of a workout will increase recovery and protein synthesis, maximizing gains.
• Do not neglect importance of carbs and fat.

Risks of Starvation(low cal) Diets

• Nutrition experts do not recommend energy intake lower than 1,200 calories. 
• Increased risk of malnutrition, poor energy and inability to complete essential fitness program, behavioral pendulum swing, minor side effects as fatigue, constipation, nausea, diarrhea. Gallstone formation.

Chapter 16 Chronic Health Conditions and Physical or Functional Limitations:

For this chapter, read through the text and highlight the training guidelines and have a general idea on how to design a program for the special populations mentioned in this particular chapter.  Don’t worry too much about the acute variables (reps, sets, tempo, etc.) but rather on contraindications and more appropriate techniques for these populations.

Age Considerations

• Children and adolescents should get 1 hr or more of physical activity daily.

Physiologic Differences between Children and Adults

• Children do not exhibit plateau in oxygenuptake, peak oxygen uptake is more appropriate.
• Children less efficient, tend to exercise at higher percentage of peak oxygen uptake during submaximal exercise.
• Do not produce sufficient levels of glycolytic enzymes to sustain bouts of high-intensity exercise.

Resistance Training for Youth

• Resistance training is both safe and effective in children and adolescents.
• Untrained children can improve strength by 30 to 40% in 8 weeks.

Seniors

• Older adults with and without other chronic health conditions can and do respond to exercise much in the same manner as apparently healthy younger adults.
• Walking is one of most fundamental functional activities affected with degenerative aging.
• Musculoskeletal loss not entirely related to aging.
• Complete PAR-Q. Assessments.
• Progression should be slow, well monitored, based on postural control. Exercises should be progressed if possible toward free sitting or standing. If client cannot tolerate SMR perform slow rhythmic active or dynamic stretches.

Obesity

• Flexibility exercises should be performed from standing or seated position, using standing hip flexor stretch rather than kneeling hip flexor stretch, standing hamstring stretch, wall calf stretch.
• Core and balance training important for obese individuals.
• May find it difficult to use machines, dumbbells, cables, exercise tubing work quite well.

Diabetes

• Most important goal is glucose control. Exercise improves insulin sensitivity. Positive effect on prevention of type 2 diabetes.
• Take care to prevent blisters and foot microtrauma that could result in foot infection.
• Daily exercise recommended. Flexibility exercises recommended.
• Follow exercise guideline for obese adults. Lower impact exercise modalities.

Hypertension

• Low to moderately intense exercise just as effective as high intensity activity in reducing blood pressure.
• Important to monitor body position of clients with hypertension at all times. Body position can have dramatic effect on blood pressure response before, during, and after exercise in clients with hypertension.
• Avoid heavy lifting and valsalva maneuvers. Do not let client overgrip weights or clench fists. Modify tempo to avoid extended isometric and concentric muscle action. Perform exercises in standing or seated position. Allow client to stand up slowly to avoid possible dizziness. Progress client slowly.

Coronary Heart Disease

• Monitor pulse to stay below safe upper limit of exercise. 
• Clients may have other diseases to consider as well, such as diabetes, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, or obesity
• Modify tempo to avoid extended isometric and concentric muscle action
• Avoid heavy lifting and Valsalva maneuvers
• Do not let client overgrip weights
• Perform exercises in standing or seated position
• Progress slowly

Osteoperosis

• Progress should be slow, well monitored, based on postural control
• Exercises should be progressed if possible toward free sitting(no support) or standing
• Focus exercises on hips, thighs, back, and arms
• Avoid excessive spinal loading on squat and leg press
• Make sure client is breathing in normal manner and avoid holding breath in Valsalva maneuver

Arthritis

• Avoid heavy lifting and high reps
• Stay in pain-free ranges of motion
• Only use SMR if tolerated by client
• May be need to start out only with 5 mins of exercise and progressively increase

Cancer

• Avoid heavy lifting in initial stages of training
• Allow for adequate rest intervals and progress client slowly
• Only use SMR if tolerated, avoid SMR for clients undergoing chemo or radiation
• May be need to start out with only 5 mins of exercise and progressively increase

Exercise and Pregnancy

• Avoid exercises in prone or supine position after 12 weeks
• Avoid SMR on varicose veins and areas of swelling
• Plyometric training not advised in second and third trimesters

Chronic Lung Disease

• Upper body exercises cause increased dyspnea and must be monitored
• Allow for sufficient rest between sets

Intermittent Claudication/Peripheral Arterial Disease

• Allow for sufficient rest
• Workout may start with 5-10 mins of activity
• Progress slowly
• Treadmill walking preferred.
• Primary limiting factor is leg pain.

Chapter 15 Introduction to Exercise Modalities:

There are no specific study tips for chapter 15, but be sure to be familiar with the different modalities such as:

• Machines
• Free weights
• Bands and rubber tubbing
• Cable Machines
• Medicine Ball
• Kettlebell
• Body weight training
• TRX suspension training
• BOSU

You will not see very much on the exam for this chapter but it will help you with categorizing exercise for resistance, core, and reactive training.

Strength Training Machines

• Safer option than free weights. Machine of choice for those who lack stability. Can change the load quickly.
• Inferior to free weights for improving core stability and neuromuscular efficiency(proper movement patterns). Can limit effectiveness of exercise and create more stress on joints because not all machines are created to accomodate all body types.
• Trainers should strive to progress individuals into more proprioceptively enriched environment while emphasizing multiple planes of motion.

Free Weights

• Perform exercises with full range of motion. Enhance motor learning and improve overall neuromuscular efficiency and performance. More easily progressed. Allow individuals to perform multijoint exercises(complex movements). Complex movements require more energy and enables individuals to expend more calories in a short period.
• Free weights can offer many benefits such as improving postual stability, strength, and muscle size and power, they can be potentially dangerous for novice exercises until proper technique is mastered.

Cable Machines

• Offers similar freedom of movement but does not require a spotter. Each cable exercise must match muscle’s natural line of pull. For example when performing biceps curl(elbow flexion), cable should be positioned to offer resistance in a vertical motion against elbow flexion.
• Can be effectively used in all phases(phase 1-5)
• Excellent option to challenge the core while having individuals perform exercises in standing position versus seated.

Elastic Resistance (Rubber Tubing and Bands)

• Inexpensive alternative to training with resistance. Various forms can help improve proprioceptive demands, muscular endurance, and joint stabilization. Not ideal for improving maximal strength, but it has been shown to be very beneficial to helping improve muscular strength and endurance for fitness and rehab purposes.
• Helps clients move in multiple planes of motion and oftentimes achieve a greater range of motion (ROM) during training.
• Tension is not consistent with elastic bands.

Medicine Balls

• Can be used with variety of populations as part of program to increase muscular strength, endurance, and power. 
• Ability to develop explosive power is one of the unique benefits of medicine balls because velocity of movement is critical to developing power.

Kettlebell Training

• Benefits – Enhanced athleticism, coordination, and balance. Increased mental focus and physical stamina, increased oxygen uptake, increased total body conditioning. Recruitment of posterior chain. Increased core stability and muscular endurance. Increased strength and power. Increased grip strength. Increased metabolic demands and caloric expenditure.
• Kettlebell Program Design Strategies – Skilled lifts, must hone skills first. Emphasis on posterior chain, working from ground up, and keeping perfect form is top priority. Quality should come before quantity.
• Five checkpoints – feet shoulder width apart pointed straight ahead, knees in line with second and third toes, hips level with lumbar spine and in neutral position, shoulders depressed and slightly retracted to activate scapulae, head cervical spine in neutral position(chin tuck)

Body Weight Training

• Can learn how to train in all planes of motion and acquire greater kinesthetic awraeness. 
• Suspension bodyweight training – increased muscle activation, low compressive loads to spine, increased performance, potential increase in caloric expenditure, improvements in cardiovascular fitness
• Ideal for phases 1 and 2 of OPT model.

Introduction to Priopceptive Modalities

Stability Balls

• Swiss balls, allows increase in strength and stability of the core musculature when substituted for more stable surfaces such as exercise benches, chairs, and the floor.
• The unstable base of support forces user to constantly adjust body position to subtle movements of the ball.
• Can be dangerous if one does not possess good balance or control.

Bosu Balls

• Stands for both sides up. 
• Ability to increase intensity of an exercise by decreasing the stability. Increases neuromuscular activity when compared with standing on a stable surface.

 

Chapter 14 Integrated Program Design and the Optimum Performance Training (OPT) Model:

Know all definitions throughout the chapter.

Tempo controls the amount of time that the muscle is active or producing tension – concentrically, isometrically, and/or eccentrically.

NASM writes tempos this way: “a/b/c”And tempo is always written in this way:

a = eccentric
b = isometric
c = concentric

Therefore, assuming the above, a 4/2/1 tempo on a one repetition of a bench press would be:

• 4 counts, controlled, eccentric deceleration, bringing the weight back down (before the push)
• 2 counts on the isometric stabilization at the bottom of the exercise
• 1 count on the push (upward)

Another example: a 2/0/2 tempo on one repetition of a bench press would be:

• 2 counts, controlled, eccentric deceleration, bring the weight down (into position, before the push upward)
• 0 no counts of isometric stabilization at the bottom
• 2 counts of concentric pushing (upward)

Focus on the following tables from Chapter 14:

• Table 14.2 Training volume adaptations
• Table 14.7 Phase 1: Stabilization Endurance Training
  • (all of the resistance training acute variable and tempo for core)
• Table 14.8 Phase 2: Strength Endurance Training
  • (all of the resistance training acute variable and tempo for core)
• Table 14.9 Phase 3: Hypertrophy Training
  • (all of the resistance training acute variable and tempo for core)
• Table 14.10 Phase 4: Maximal Strength Training
  • (all of the resistance training acute variable and tempo for core)
• Table 14.11 Phase 5: Power
  • (all of the resistance training acute variable and tempo for core)

Program Design

• Program Design – Purposeful system or plan put together to help an individual achieve a specific goal. Provide a pathway to help clients achieve their health and fitness goals.
  

Program Design using the OPT Model

• Planned, systematic, periodized training program. Designed to concurrently improve all functional abilities, such as flexibility, core stabilization, balance, strength, power, and cardiorespiratory endurance.

Acute Variables of Training

• Acute Variables – Important components that specify how each exercise is to be performed. The most fundamental component of designing a training program. They determine the amount of stress placed on the body and ultimately what adaptations the body will incur.
  
• Body will specifically adapt to demands placed upon it(known as principle of specificity). Acute variables applied during exercise program will dictate these demands and adaptations achieved. Collectively, acute variables are the foundation of program design.

Repetitions

• Repetition (or “Rep”) – One complete movement of a single exercise. Most reps will involve three muscle actions: concentric, isometric, and eccentric.
  
• Simply means to count the number of movements performed in a given amount of time. They can be a means to count time under tension.
• Each phase of OPT model has specific goals and therefore requires specific number of reps to achieve these goals. Number of reps performed in a given set is dependent on client’s work capacity, intensity of exercise, and specific phase of training.
• All acute variables are interdependent. Ex increasing load, fewer number of reps can be performed.
• Research shows training in a specific rep range yields specific adaptations.
• Muscular endurance and stabilization is best achieved by performing 12 to 20 reps at 50 to 70% 1RM
• Hypertrophy best achieved using 6 to 12 reps at 75 to 85% 1RM
• Maximal strength is achieved from 1 to 5 at 85 to 100% 1RM
• Power adaptations require 1 to 10 reps at 30-45% 1RM
• Beginning phases of OPT consists of high rep schemes necessary to build proper connective tissue(tendons, ligaments) strength, stability, and muscular endurance.
• Common mistake of advanced clients is to not use a planned training program that provides periods of low-rep training alternated with periods of high-rep training.
• Higher intensities of training can only be sustained for a short period without running the risk of overtraining.

Sets

• Set – Group of consecutive repetitions. Inverse relationship between sets, reps, and intensity. Individual usually performs fewer sets when performing higher reps at a lower intensity(endurance adaptations) and more sets when performing lower reps at a higher intensity(strength and power adaptations).
  
• Muscular endurance and stabilization, 1 to 3 sets, 12 to 20 reps 50 to 70% 1RM
• Hypertrophy 3 to 5 sets, 6 to 12 reps, 75 to 85% 1RM
• Maximal strength 4 to 6 sets, 1 to 5 reps, intensity of 85 to 100% 1RM
• Power adaptations 3 to 6 sets, 1 to 10 reps, 30 to 45% 1RM

Training Intensity

• Training Intensity – An individual’s level of effort, compared with their maximal effort, which is usually expressed as a percentage. One of the most important acute variables to consider when designing an integrated training program.
  
• Muscular endurance and stabilization is best developed with intensity of 50 to 70% 1RM
• Hypertrophy achieved with 75 to 85% 1RM
• Maximal strength with 85 to 100% 1RM
• Power with 30 to 45% 1RM
• Training in an unstable environment also increases the training intensity because it requires greater motor unit recruitment, leads to greater energy expenditure per exercise.

Repetition Tempo

• Repetition Tempo – The speed with which each rep is performed. Important variable that can be manipulated to achieve specific training objectives such as endurance, hypertrophy, strength, and power.
  
• Because movement occurs at different velocities, to get most appropriate results from training, personal trainers must select appropriate speed of movement(slower tempo for endurance and faster tempo for power).
• Muscular endurance and stabilization is best developed with slow rep tempo. One example would be 4 sec eccentric, 2 sec isometric, 1 sec concentric(4/2/1).
• Hypertrophy is achieved at moderate tempo, one example would be 2 second eccentric, 0 isometric, and 2 second concentric.(2/0/2)
• Maximal strength are best achieved with fast or explosive tempo.
• Power adaptations best achieved with fast or explosive tempo that can be safely controlled.
• OPT model places major emphasis on rep tempo because it has significant impact on functional outcome of the stressed tissues. By emphasizing eccentric and isometric muscle actions at slower velocities during stabilization phases of training, more demand is placed on connective tissue(as well as stabilizing muscles) and better prepares nervous system for functional movements.

Rest Interval

• Rest Interval – The time taken to recuperate between sets. Has a dramatic effect on the outcome of the training program.
  
• Muscular endurance and stabilization 0 to 90 seconds rest.
• Hypertrophy short rest periods between 0 and 60 secs.
• Maximal strength 3 to 5 min rest.
• Power 3 to 5 min rest.
• Dynamic resistance training and isometric training significantly reduce ATP and PC supplies.
• 20 to 30 seconds allows approx 50% recovery of ATP and PC
• 40 secs 75% of ATP and PC
• 60 secs 85 to 90% of ATP and PC
• 3 mins approx 100% of ATP and PC
• Rest interval between sets determines to what extent energy resources are replinished before next set. Shorter rest interval, less ATP and PC will be replenished, and less energy will be available.
• For new clients this fatigue can lead to decreased neuromuscular control, force production, and stabilization by decreasing motor unit recruitment. Therefore inadequate rest intervals can decrease performance and could lead to altered movement patterns and even injury.
• If rest periods are too long, potential effects include decreased neuromuscular activity and decreased body temp. If beginner client is then asked to perform intense bout of exercise, this could entail a potential increased risk of injury.
• Individuals who are starting an exercise routine may respond better to longer rest periods until they adjust to demands of their program. Longer rest periods also help to ensure proper exercise technique. By reducing fatigue, client may be able to perform exercise with greater precision.

Training Volume

• Training Volume – Amount of physical training performed within a specified period. Extremely important to plan and control training volume to prevent overtraining. All training is cumulative, training volume varies among individuals and is based on: training phase, goals, age, work capacity or training status, recoverability, nutritional status, injury history, life stress.
  
• For an individual to achieve optimal results from integrated training program, the program must provide them with appropriate planned training volume for extended periods. Volume is always inversely related to intensity. Individual cannot safely perform high volumes of high intensity exercises for an extneded period of time.
• Example when working with loads exceeding 90% of 1RM, one rarely exceeds a workout volume of 30 reps per exercise. However when working with loads of 60% maximum, client can easily perform workout volume of 36 to 60 reps.
• Training phase and training goal dictate the reps, sets, intensity, rest, and tempo, and these combine to dictate the volume.

Training Frequency

• Training Frequency – Number of training sessions performed during a specified period(usually 1 week). Considerable debate concerning adequate number of training sessions per body part per week necessary for optimal results.
  
• New clients may begin training their entire body two times a week. Experienced bodybuilders with specific goal of hypertrophy may have training cycle in which theyt rain with a split routine of six sessions per week, training each bodypart two times per week with larger volume per session.
• Optimal frequency for strength improvements is three to five times per week.
• One to two times per week is sufficient to maintain physical, physiologic, and performance improvements that were achieved during other phases of training.

Training Duration

• Training Duration – Timeframe of a workout or the length of time spent in one phase of training. Training duration of a workout is a function of the number of reps, number of sets, number of exercises, and length of the rest intervals. Training programs that exceed 60 to 90 mins are associated with rapidly declining energy levels. Causes alterations in hormonal and immune system responses that can have negative impact on training program and raise risk of minor infections, especially upper respiratory system.
  
• Training duration for a phase of training is dictated by the client’s level of physical ability, goal, and compliance to the program. Typically, a phase of training will last 4 weeks, as this is amount of time it generally takes for body to adapt to a given stimulus.

Exercise Selection

• Exercise Selection – The process of choosing appropriate exercises for a client’s program. Has tremendous impact on the outcome of training program. Human movement system is highly adaptable system that readily adjusts to imposed demands of training. Therefore, exercises should be specific to the training goals.
  
• Exercises can be broken down into three different types based on the number of joints used, movements performed, and adaptation desired.
• Single joint – focus on isolating one major muscle group or joint(bicep curls, triceps pushdowns, calf raises).
• Multijoint – Use involvement of two or three joints(squats, lunges, step-ups, chest presses).
• Total body – Include multiple joint movements(step-up balance to overhead press, squat to two arm press, barbell clean).
• For example to develop optimal stability, traditional exercises can be progressed to a more unstable environment, such as standing up(two-leg, staggered-stance, and single-leg) or from a stable environment to an unstable environment(foam pad, stability ball, bosu ball).
• Exercises performed in unstable environments produce superior results for goal of stabilization and training the core stabilization muscles.

Periodization and the OPT Model (Planned Fitness Training)

• Understanding the importance of designing safe and effective programs using acute variable manipulation is important fundamental information for all personal trainers and ultimately their success in the profession.
• Periodization involves two primary objectives – divide training into distinct periods(or phases), train different forms of strength in each period(or phase) to control volume of training and prevent injury.

Training Plans

• Training Plan – Specific outline, created by fitness professional to meet a client’s goals, that details the form of training, length of time, future changes, and specific exercises to be performed. How often, how long, etc.
  
• Annual Plan – Generalized training plan that spans 1 year to show when the client will progress between phases. 
• Monthly Plan – Generalized training plan that spans 1 month and shows which phases will be required each day of each week. 
• Weekly Plan – Training plan of specific workouts that spans 1 week and shows which exercises are required each day of the week. 
• Much of literature regarding periodization refers to dividing training program into specific cycles termed macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles. Macrocycle is largest cycle and typically covers a yearlong period of training. Macrocycle is divided into mesocycles, which are typically 1 to 3 months in length.
• Each mesocycle in turn is divided into microcycles, which are usually a week in length.
• Periodization has been shown to be an effective form of program design for many fitness-related goals, and yet to date is not common practice among all personal trainers.
• Periodization provides for the repeated use of different forms of training at specific times in an annual training program to elicit different adaptations in the body.
• By intentionally cycling through different periods or phases of training, the acute variables are manipulated to adjust the volume of training.
• By controlling the volume of training as a function of time in any given program, periodization allows for maximal levels of adaptation, while minimizing overtraining, which is primary benefit of periodization. Overtraining will lead to fatigue and eventual injury.

The OPT Model

• Different periods(or phases) of training seen in traditional periodization model include perparatory period, hypertrophy period, maximal strength period, and power period. OPT simplifies these into stabilization, strength, and power. 
• OPT model should be thought of as staircase guiding clients through different levels of adaptation.

Stabilization

• First level focuses on main adptation of stabilization (or anatomic adaptation) and is designed to prepare body for demands of higher levels of training that may follow. Crucial for all beginners.
• Also necessary to cycle back through this level after periods of strength and power training to maintain high degree of core and joint stability.
• Allows body to actively rest from more intense bouts of training.
• Focus of stabilization training includes: improving muscular imbalances, improving stabilization of core musculature, preventing tissue overload by preparing muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints for upcoming imposed demands of training, improving overall cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular condition, estabilishing proper movement patterns and exercise technique
• Above goals are accomplished through low-intensity, high-rep training programs, emphasizing core and joint stabilization and will incorporate exercises that progressively challenge the body’s stability requirements(or proprioception).
• Primary means of progressing is by increasing proprioceptive demands of the exercises. Exercises become more unstable. Challenge client’s ability to maintain proper balance and posture.
• Extremely effective for increasing neuromuscular efficiency in healthy, elderly, and unhealthy populations.
• Another important component is to help ensure activity-specific strength adaptations.

Stabilization Endurance Training (Phase 1)

• Designed to create optimal levels of stabilization strength and postural control. Important to cycle back through this phase between periods of higher intensity training.
• Primary focus when progressing in this phase is increasing proprioception of exercises, rather than just the load.
• Focuses on: Increasing stability, increasing muscular endurance, increasing neuromuscular efficiency of the core musculature, improving intermuscular and intramuscular coordination
• In addition to increasing proprioceptive demand, acute variables can be progressed by increasing the volume(sets, reps) and intensity(load, exercise selection, and planes of motion) and by decreasing the rest periods. Client in this category will generally stay in this phase for 4-week duration.

 

Strength

• Second level of OPT model, focuses on main adaptation of strength, includes strength endurance, hypertrophy, and maximal strength.
• Designed to maintain stability while increasing amount of stress placed on the body for increased muscle size and strength.
• Necessary progression for anyone who desires to increase caloric expenditure, muscle size, muscle strength, and bone mineral density.
• Focus of strength level training is to: increase ability of core musculature to stabilize the pelvis and spine under heavier loads, through more complete ranges of motion.
• Increase load bearing capabilities of the muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints.
• Increase the volume of training.
• Increase metabolic demand by taxing the ATP-PC and glycolysis energy systems to induce cellular changes in muscle.
• Increase motor unit recruitment, frequency of motor unit recruitment, and motor unit synchronization(maximal strength)

Strength Endurance Training (Phase 2)

• Hybrid form of training that promotes increased stabilization endurance, hypertrophy, and strength. 
• Entails use of superset techniques in which a more stable exercise(such as bench press) is immediately followed with a stabilization exercise with similar biomechanical motions(such as stability ball push-ups).
• Thus for every set of exercise/body part performed according to the acute variables, there are actually two exercises or sets being performed.
• High amounts of volume can be generated in this phase of training.
• Similar to phase 1, acute variables can be progressed by increasing proprioceptive demand, volume, sets, reps, and intensity, and by decreasing rest periods. Client will generally stay in this phase for 4-6 weeks.

 

Hypertrophy Training (Phase 3)

• Hypertrophy training is specific for the adaptation of maximal muscle growth, focusing on high levels of volume with minimal rest periods to force cellular changes that result in overall increase in muscle size.
• Acute variables can be progressed if client with goal of increasing lean body mass and general performance has properly progressed through phases 1 and 2 of OPT model.
• Because goal of this phase is primarily hypertrophy, the fitness professional will want to increase volume and intensity of the program. Client will stay in for 4 weeks before cycling back through phase 1 or 2 or progressing on to phase 4 or 5.

 

Maximal Strength Training (Phase 4)

• Maximal strength training phase focuses on increasing the load placed on tissues of the body.
• Maximal intensity improves: recruitment of more motor units, rate of force production, motor unit synchronization
• Maximal strength training has also been shown to help increase the benefits of power training used in Phase 5. Goal of this phase is primarily maximal strength, trainer will want to increase load and volume. Rest periods may need to be increased as client trains with heavier loads. Client will stay in this phase for 4-week duration before cycling back through Phase 1 or 2 or progressing on to phase 5.

 

Power

• Designed to increase the rate of force production(or speed of muscle contraction). Uses the adaptations of stabilization and strength acquired in previous phases of training and applies them with more realistic speeds and forces that the body will encounter in everyday life and in sports.
• Not a common practice in the fitness environment, but has very viable and purposeful place in properly planned program.
• Increase in either force or velocity will produce an increase in power. Accomplished by increasing the speed at which you move a load, or increasing the load.
• Combined effect is better rate of force production in daily activities and sporting events.
• To develop optimal levels of power, individuals should train with heavy loads(85 to 100%) and light loads(30 to 45%) at high speeds.
• Focus of power training is to increase the rate of force production by increasing the number of motor units activated, the synchrony between them, and the speed at which they are excited.

Power Training (Phase 5)

• Power training phase focuses on both high force and velocity to increase power. Accomplished by combining a strength exercise with power exercise for each body part(such as barbell bench press superset with medicine ball chest pass).
• Range of training intensities is important to stimulate different physiologic changes. 85 to 100% refers to intensity for traditional strength training exercises. 30 to 45% is used for “speed” exercises.
• Goal of this phase is power, trainer will want to progress by increasing volume(sets), intensity(load), and velocity. Client will stay in this category for 4 week duration before cycling back through Phase 1 or 2.

 

Applying the OPT Model

Applying the OPT Model for the Goal of Body Fat Reduction

• Goal of reducing body fat requires clients to follow the simple principle of burning more calories than they consume. Best way to increase calories burned is to move more.
• Weight training provides potent means to burn calories when it is combined with cardiorespiratory training by maintaining or even increasing lean muscle tissue. More activity and greater amounts of lean body mass result in more calories burned during exercise and throughout the day.
• The following program is a general representation of how the OPT model is used for clients with the goal of body fat reduction. Because goal does not include maximal strength or power, client only needs to be cycled through first two phases of OPT model, with phase 3 as optinal phase.
• Cardiorespiratory training will be used in conjunction with the OPT model to help weight-loss clients burn calories and improve health. Clients will progress through stages I, II, and III as their fitness levels improve.

Applying OPT model for increasing lean body mass

• Muscle hypertrophy can be defined as chronic enlargement of muscles. To accomplish this goal, training programs need to be progressed with higher volumes(more sets, reps, and intensity) to force muscles to regenerate their cellular makeup and produce increased size.
• With goal of increased lean body mass, client can be cycled through first four phases of OPT model.

Applying OPT Model for Improving General Sports Performance

• Goal of improving general sports performance requires client to increase overall proprioception, strength, and power output(rate of force production). Training will need to be progressed from stabilization through power phases of training.
• Phases 1, 2, and 5 will be most important.
• Phase 1 and 2 are vital and will prepare connective tissues and muscles for higher demands of training to follow. Without proper prep injury will be imminent.