Chapter 13 Resistance Training Concepts:

• General Adaptation Syndrome
• Table 13.1 Adaptive benefits of resistance training
• Table 13.2 The general adaptation syndrome
• SAID Principle
• Adaptations for resistance training
• Table 13.3 Resistance training systems
• Table 13.4 Peripheral heart action system

On the exam, some questions may ask about how to properly progress body position during an exercise.  You need to be able to progress (make more difficult), or regress (make easier) a client’s body position. Below, progressions are listed from easy to difficult and you can see that two-legs on a stable surface (the floor) is easier than standing on one leg (single-leg), on the floor. With the arms, start a client with two arms, before progressing on to an alternating arm, and then to a single arm exercise. For example:

What would be the immediate progression of a “Single-Leg Dumbbell Curl”?

a. single-leg, alternating arm, stable
b. single-leg, single-arm, stable
c. two-leg, alternating arm, unstable
d. two-leg, single-arm, unstable

General Adaptation Syndrome

• Optimal state of human movement system is one of physiologic balance or homeostasis.
• General Adaptation Syndrome – Used to describe how the body responds and adapts to stress. For adaptations to occur, the body must be confronted with a stressor of some form that creates the need for a response.
• Three stages of response to stress: alarm reaction, resistance development, exhaustion

Alarm Reaction Stage

• Alarm Reaction – The initial reaction to a stressor. Activates a number of physiological and psychological protective processes within the body. During initial sessions of resistance training programs, body is forced to try and adapt to increased amounts of force on bones, joints, muscles, connective tissues, and nervous system.
  
• During alarm stage numerous physiologic responses occur, including increase in oxygen and blood supply as well as neural recruitment to the working muscles.
• Over time applying principle of progressive overload, body increases its ability to meet demands being placed on it.
• Delayed onset muscle soreness – Pain or discomfort often felt 24 to 72 hours after intense exercise or unaccustomed physical activity. 

Resistance Development Stage

• Resistance Development – Body increases its functional capacity to adapt to the stressor. Human movement system will increase its capabilities to efficiently recruit muscle fibers and distribute oxygen and blood to proper areas of the body. Once adaptation has occurred, body will require increased stress or overload to produce a new response and a higher level of fitness.
  
• Personal trainers understand this adaptation response but use it improperly by only manipulating the amount of weight the client usees when this is one of many ways to increase stress on teh body.

Exhaustion Stage

• Prolonged stress or intolerable amounts of stress can lead to exhaustion or distress.
• Exhaustion – prolonged stress or stress that is intolerable and will produce exhaustion or distress to the system.
• When stressor is too much for any one of the physiologic systems to handle, it causes a breakdown or injury such as: Stress fractures, muscle strains, joint pain, emotional fatigue.
• Avoiding pitfalls of exhaustion stage is one of main reasons for using OPT model.
• Periodization – Division of a training program into smaller, progressive stages. 
• If resistance is continually increased with intention of stressing specific muscles or muscle groups to produce increase in size and strength, it can lead to injury of the muscle, joint, or connective tissue, especially if resistance is added too quickly or inadequate rest and recovery periods are not planned for.

Principle of Specificity: The SAID Principle

• Principle of Specificity or Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands(SAID principle) – Principle that states the body will adapt to the specific demands that are placed on it. If someone repeatedly lifts heavy weights, that person will produce higher levels of maximal strength. Conversly if a person repeatedly lifts lighter weights for many reps, that person will develop higher levels of muscular endurance.
  
• Training programs should reflect desired outcomes.
• Type I slow twitch fibers are smaller in diameter, slower to produce maximal tension, and more resistant to fatigue.
• Type II are larger, fast twitch, quick to produce maximal tension, fatigue more quickly than type I.
• Degree of adaptation that occurs during training is directly related to the mechanical, neuromuscular, and metabolic specificity of the training program. To effectively achieve program goals for clients, trainers need to consistently evaluate the need to manipulate the exercise routine to meet actual training goals. The body can only adapt if it has a reason to adapt.
• Mechanical Specificity – The weight and movements placed on the body. To develop muscular endurance of legs requires light weights and high repetitions when performing leg-related exercises. To develop maximal strength in the chest, heavy weights must e used during chest-related exercises.
• Neuromuscular Specificity – Refers to the speed of contraction and exercise selection. To develop higher levels of stability while pushing, chest exercises will need to be performed with controlled, unstable exercises, at slower speeds. To develop strength, exercises should be performed in more stable environments with heavier loads to place more of an emphasis on the prime movers. To develop higher levels of power, low-weight high-velocity contractions must be performed in a plyometric manner.
• Metabolic Specificity – Refers to the energy demand placed on the body. To develop endurance, training will require prolonged bouts of exercise, with minimal rest between sets. Endurance training primarily uses aerobic pathways to supply energy to the body. To develop maximal strength or power, training will require longer rest periods, so the intensity of each bout of exercise remains high. Energy will be supplied primarily via anaerobic pathways.
• Trainers should remember that a client’s training program should be designed to meet the specific demands of their daily life and health and wellness goals.
• Mechanically body burns more calories when movements are performed while standing versus seated or lying position.
• From neuromuscular standpoint, body burns more calories when more muscles are being used for longer periods in controlled, unstable environments.
• Metabolically, body burns more calories when rest periods are short to minimize full recuperation.

Progressive Adaptations from Resistance Training

Stabilization

• Stabilization is the human movement system’s ability to provide optimal dynamic joint support to maintain correct posture during all movements. Getting right muscles to fire, with right amount of force, in the proper plane of motion, at the right time.
• If training is not performed with controlled unstable exercises, clients will not gain the same level of stability and may even worsen.

Muscular Endurance

• Muscular Endurance – The ability to produce and maintain force production for prolonged periods of time. Improving muscular endurance is integral component of all fitness programs.
  
• Research has shown that resistance training protocols using high reps are the most effective way to improve muscular endurance as well and after an initial training effect in previously untrained individuals, multiple sets of periodized training may prove superior to single-set training for improving muscular endurance.

Muscular Hypertrophy

• Muscular Hypertrophy – Enlargement of skeletal muscle fibers in response to overcoming force from high volumes of tension. Seen in resistance training. Visible signs of hypertrophy may not be apparent for many weeks(4-8 weeks), in an untrained client, process begins in the early stages of training, regardless of the intensity of training used.
  
• Resistance training protocols that use low to intermediate rep ranges with progressive overload lead to muscular hypertrophy. Structured progressive training programs use multiple sets to help increase musculoskeletal hypertrophy in both younger and older men and women alike. Progressive resistance training programs using moderate to low rep protocols with progressively higher loads will result in increased hypertrophy in older adults and men and women.

Strength

• Strength – ability of neuromuscular system to produce inteneral tension to overcome an external load. Degree of internal tension produced is the result of strength adaptations.
  
• Resistance training programs have traditionally focused on developing maximal strength in individual muscles, emphasizing one plane of motion, mainly sagittal. Because all muscles function eccentrially, isometrically, and concentrially on all three planes of motion at different speeds, training programs should be designed using a progressive approach that emphasizes the appropriate exercise selection, all muscle actions, and repetition tempos.
• Because muscle operates under the control of the CNS, strength needs to be thought of not as a function of muscle, but as a result of activating the neuromuscular system. Strength gains can occur rapidly in beginning clients and can increase with structured, progressive resistance training program.
• One factor in increased strength is an increase in number of motor units recruited, especially early in the training program.
• Strength is built on foundation of stabilization requiring muscles, tendons, and ligaments to be prepared for the load that will be required to increase strength beyond initial stages of training.

Power

• Power – Ability of neuromuscular system to produce the greatest force in the shortest time. Force multiplied by velocity. Power adaptations build on stabilization and strength adaptations and then apply them at more realistic speeds and forces seen in everyday life and sporting activities.
  
• Increase in either force or velocity will produce increase in power. Training for power can be achieved by increasing weight(force) or increasing the speed at which weight is moved(velocity).

Resistance Training Systems

• Originally power lifters, olympic lifters, and bodybuilders designed most resistance training programs. Research shows following systematic, integrated training program and manipulating key training variables achieve optimal gains in strength, neuromuscular efficiency, hypertrophy, and performance.

Single-Set System

• Uses 1 set per exercise. Usually recommended that single-set workouts be performed two times a week to promote sufficient development and maintenance of muscle mass. 
• When reviewing physiology of how human movement system operates, notion that single set is not enough may not be true.
• Helps avoid synergistic dominance

Multiple-Set System

• Consists of performing multiple numbers of sets of exercise. Appropriate for both novice and advanced clients. Superior to single set training for advanced clients. 

Pyramid System

• Progressive or regressive step approach that either increases weight with each set or decreases weight with each set. In light-to-heavy system, individual typically performs 10 to 12 reps with light load and increases resistance for each following set, until individual can perform 1 to 2 reps, usually in 4 to 6 sets. Easily be used for workouts that involve only 2 to 4 sets or higher rep schemes(12 to 20 reps). Heavy to light system works in opposite direction.

Superset System

• Two exercises, performed in rapid succession. Multiple variations of superset systems.
• First variation includes performing two exercises for same muscle group back to back. Example bench press immediately followed by push-ups.
• Other variation involves two exercises back to back that involve antagonist muscle groups.
• Involves 8-12 reps with no rest between sets or exercises.

Drop-Sets

• Allows client to continue a set past point at which it usually terminates. Performing set to failure, removing small percentage of load(5-20%), continuing with the set, completing a small number of reps(2-4), repeated several times(2-3 drops per set). 

Circuit Training

• Series of exercises that an individual performs one after the other, minimal rest between each exercise. Low to moderate number of sets, moderate to high reps(8-20), short rest periods(15-60 secs). 

Peripheral Heart Action System

• Another variation of circuit training that alternates upper body and lower body exercises throughout the circuit. Distributes blood flow between upper and lower extremities potentially improving circulation. Number of exercises per sequence varies with program’s goal. This system is very beneficial for incorporating an integrated, multidimensional program and for altering body composition.

 

Split-Routine System

• Breaking body up into parts to be trained on separate days. Bodybuilders use mass dominant and strength athletes use split routine system. Numerous exercises on same day for same body part to bring optimal muscular hypertrophy. 

Vertical Loading and Horizontal Loading

• Vertical Loading – Alternating body parts trained from set to set, starting from upper extremity and moving to the lower extremity. 
  
• Goes from total body exercise, chest, back, shoulders, biceps, triceps, legs
• In vertically loaded workout client performs total body workout, then to chest, then to back, and so forth until all exercises have been completed. Client then start back at full body.
• Can be very beneficial in allowing for maximal recovery of each body part while minimizing amount of time wasted on rest.
• Horizontal loading – Performing all sets of exercise or body part before moving on to next exercise or body part. Appropriate for maximal strength and power training. Drawback is the amount of time typically spent resting.

Chapter 12 Speed, Agility, and Quickness Training:

• Know all definitions throughout the chapter
• Table 12.1 Kinetic Chain checkpoints during running movements- pay attention to the foot/ankle complex
• Table 12.2 SAQ Program Design

Concepts in Speed, Agility, and Quickness Training

• Similar to plyometric training. Speed is referd to distance covered divided by time. Agility refers to short bursts of movement that involve a change in direction, cadence, or speed. Quickness refers to the ability to react to stimulus and appropriately change the motion of the body.
• Enhances client’s ability to accelerate, decelerate, and dynamically stabilize their entire body during higher-velocity acceleration and deceleration movements.

Speed

• Speed – The ability to move the body in one intended direction as fast as possible. 
  
• Stride Rate – The number of strides taken in a given amount of time(or distance). 
• Stride Length – Distance covered in one stride, during running.
• Speed is a skill that can be learned through an integrated training program.
• Proper running mechanics allows client to maximize force generation through bio mechanical efficiency.
• Frontside mechanics – Proper alignment of lead leg and pelvis during sprinting, which includes ankle dorsiflexion, knee flexion, hip flexion, and neutral pelvis. Involves triple flexion of the ankle, knee, and hip in appropriate synchrony. Improved frontside mechanics is associated with better stability, less braking forces, and increased forward driving forces.
• Backside mechanics – Proper alignment of rear leg and pelvis during sprinting, which includes ankle plantarflexion, knee extension, hip extension, and neutral pelvis. Associated with stronger push phase, including hip-knee extension, gluteal contraction, and backside arm drive.

Agility

• Agility – Ability to accelerate, decelerate, stabilize, and change direction quickly while maintaining proper posture. Requires high levels of neuromuscular efficiency to be able to maintain one’s center of gravity over base of support while changing directions at various speeds.
  
• Proper agility training can help prevent injury by enhancing body’s ability to effectively control eccentric forces in all planes of motion as well as by improving structural integrity of connective tissue.

 

Quickness

• Quickness – The ability to react and change body composition with maximal rate of force production, in all planes of motion and from all body positions, during functional activities. Involves ability to assess visual, auditory, or kinesthetic stimuli and to provide the appropriate physical response as fast as possible(such as hitting a baseball or swerving to avoid car accident).
  

Speed, Agility, and Quickness for Nonathletic Populations

• Widely used and accepted way to improve sports performance in athletes, components of SAQ program also significantly improve physical health profile of apparently healthy sedentary adults and those with medical or health limitations. Increased neuromuscular, biomechanical, and physiological demand for such training can aid in weight loss, coordination, movement proficiency, and injury prevention when applied safely and effectively as seen in OPT model. 

SAQ Training Programs for Youth

• Children are constantly growing, developing, and maturing until early adulthood. Children are programmed to develop progressively higher neuromuscular capabilities in line with their physical and mental maturation. Environment must challenge children’s biologic systems; must learn through external measures how to adapt and apply appropriate movement patterns.
• SAQ programs decrease likelihood of athletic injury, increase likelihood of exercise participation later in life, and improve physical fitness.
• Red light green light drills, follow the snake.

SAQ Training for Weight Loss

• Interval training is highly effective in improving variety of health-related factors. High intensity, short bouts of SAQ drills make them valid choice for interval training modalities with appropriate nonathletic populations.
• When designing SAQ programs for weight loss, primary focus is to keep heart rate appropriately elevated to increase fat oxidation and caloric expenditure.
• Jump rope/cone shuffle circuit.

SAQ Training for Seniors

• Primary function of SAQ for seniors is to prevent age-related decreases in bone density, coordinative ability, and muscular power. Aids in prevention of injury and increase in quality of life.
• Movement confidence and proficiency are essential in senior populations to aid in prevention of falls and maintain activities of daily life.
• Sarcopenia, age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass, slowing sarcopenai are interventions requiring speed of movement and rate of force production.

SAQ Drills and Programming Strategies

 

 

Chapter 11 Plyometric Training Concepts:

• Know all definitions throughout the chapter
• Integrated performance paradigm
• The phases of Plyometric Exercise
• Figure 11.2 Program design parameters for reactive training
• OPT™ Level (adaptation): Stabilization, Strength, or Power (be familiar with all exercises listed, as well as how to regress and progress the exercises listed)
• Type of Exercise: Balance
• Table 11.1 Plyometric training program design

Principles of Plyometric Training

• Also known as jump or reactive training, form of exercise that uses explosive movements such as bounding, hopping, and jumping to develop muscular power.
• Plyometric training is type of training where individual reacts to the ground surface in such a way that they develop larger than normal ground forces that can then be used to project body with greater velocity or speed of movement.
• Reactive training refers to reaction stimulus clients encounter during plyometric training, which is ground surface in this case, therefore reactive and plyometric are used interchangeably.
• Individuals must possess adequate core strength, joint stability, and range of motion and have ability to balance efficiently before performing any plyometric exercises.

What is Plyometric Training?

• Enhanced performance during functional activities emphasizes the ability of muscles to exert maximal force output in a minimal amount of time(also known as rate of force production).
• Rate of Force Production – Ability of muscles to exert maximal force output in minimal amount of time. 
• Success in everyday activities and sport depends on speed at which muscular force is generated. Speed of movement is function of training, reactive neuromuscular control is function of learning. Key then is muscular overload and rapid movements during execution of training exercises.
• Plyometric (reactive) training – Exercises that generate quick, powerful movements involving an explosive concentric muscle contraction preceded by an eccentric muscle action. 
• Explosive muscular contractions can be seen in practical instances such as rebounding in basketball.
• Integrated Performance Paradigm – Move with efficiency, forces must be dampened(eccentrically), stabilized(isometrically), and then accelerated(concentrically). So muscles must slow down in eccentric phase, pause isometrically, then explosively accelerate in concentric phase.

Three phrases of Plyometric Exercise

• Eccentric Phase – First stage of plyometric movement, classified as eccentric phase, but also called deceleration, loading, yielding, counter movement, or cocking phase. Phase increases muscle spindle activity by prestretching the muscle before activation. Potential energy stored in the elastic components of the muscle during this loading phase much like stretching a rubber band.
• Amortization Phase – Dynamic stabilization and is time between end of eccentric muscle action and initiation of concentric contraction. Prolonged amortization phase results in less than optimal neuromuscular efficiency from a loss of elastic potential energy. Rapid switch from eccentric loading to concentric contraction leads to a more powerful response.
• Concentric phase – occurs immediately after amortization phase, involves concentric contraction.

Importance of Plyometric Training

• Plyo exercises enhance excitability, sensitivity, and reactivity of neuromuscular system and increase the rate of force production(power), motor unit recruitment, firing frequency(rate coding) and motor unit synchronization. 
• These exercises can be incorporated once client has achieved an overall strength base, proper core strength, and balance stabilization capabilities.
• All movement patterns that occur during functional activities involve a series of repetitive stretch-shortening cycles(eccentric and concentric contractions). Stretch-shortening cycles require neuromuscular system to react quickly and efficiently after an eccentric muscle action to produce a concentric contraction and impart necessary force(or acceleration) in the appropriate direction. Plyometric training prepares client for functional demands of specific activity.
• Plyometric training provides ability to train specific movement patterns in a biomechnically correct manner at more functionally appropriate speed. Ultimate goal of plyometric training is to decrease the reaction time of muscle action spectrum, this is what results in increased speed of movement in the individual.
• Speed of muscular exertion is limited by neuromuscular coordination. Means that the body will only move within a range of speed that the nervous system has been programmed to allow. Plyo training improves neuromuscular efficiency and improves range of speed set by CNS.
• Often overlooked in traditional training programs.

Designing a Plyometric Training Program

Stabilization Exercises

• Involve little joint motion. Designed to establish optimal landing mechanics, postural alignment, and reactive neuromuscular efficiency(coordination during dynamic movement). When individual lands they should hold the landing position for 3 to 5 seconds.
• Exercises: Squat jump with stabilization, box jump-up with stabilization, box jump-down with stabilization, multiplanar jump with stabilization

 

Plyometric Strength Exercises

• Exercises involve more dynamic eccentric and concentric movement through a full range of motion. Specificity, speed, and neural demand may also be progressed at this level. Exercises are intended to improve dynamic joint stabilization, eccentric strength, rate of force production, and neuromuscular efficiency of the entire human movement system. Performed in repetitive fashion(spending relatively short time on the ground before repeating the drill).
• Exercises: Squat jump, tuck jump, butt kick, power step-up

Plyometric Power Exercises

• Exercises involve entire muscle action spectrum and contraction-velocity spectrum used during integrated, functional movements. Designed to further improve the rate of force production, eccentric strength, reactive strength, reactive joint stabilization, dynamic neuromuscular efficiency, and optimal force production. Performed as fast and explosively as possible.
• Exercises: Ice-skaters, single-leg power step-up, proprioceptive plyometrics.

Designing a Plyometric Training Program

Chapter 9 Core Training Concepts:

• Know all definitions throughout the chapter
• Local Stabilization System
• Global Stabilization System
• Table 9.1 Muscles of the Core
• It is your responsibility to learn how to categorize, progress, and regress body position while performing certain types of exercises.
• The OPT model is divided into three different blocks of training and each building block contains specific phases of training that systematically advances the student in a safe and progressive manner. Exercises can be categorized by adaptation and by type of exercise:
• OPT Level (adaptation): Stabilization, Strength, or Power (be familiar with all exercises listed, as well as how to regress and progress the exercises listed)
• Type of Exercise: Core
• Table 9.3 Core training program design

Core Musculature

• Core – Structures that make up lumbo-pelvic-hip complex(LPHC) including lumbar spine, pelvic girdle, abdomen, and hip joint.
  
• Core is where body’s center of gravity is located and where all movement originates. Strong and efficient core is necessary for maintaining proper muscle balance throughout the entire human movement system(kinetic chain).
• Optimal length-tension relationships, recruitment patterns, and joint motions in muscle of LPHC establish neuromuscular efficiency throughout entire human movement system. Allow for efficient acceleration, deceleration, and stabilization during dynamic movements, as well as prevention of possible injuries.

Local Stabilization System

• Local stabilizers are muscles that attach directly to vertebrae. Consist primarily of slow twitch type I fibers with high density of muscle spindles. Work to limit excessive compressive, shear, and rotational forces between spinal segments. 
• Primary muscles that make up local stabilization system include transverse abdominis, internal obliques, multifidus, pelvic floor musculature, and diaphram. INcrease intra-abdominal pressure(pressure within abdominal cavity) and generating tension in thoracolumbar fascia(connective tissue of low back), increasing spinal stiffness for improved intersegmental neuromuscular control.

Global Stabilization System

• Muscles of global stabilization system attach from pelvis to the spine. These transfer loads between upper extremity and lower extremity, provide stability between pelvis and spine, and provide stabilization and eccentric control of the core during functional movements.
• Primary muscles that make up global stabilization system include quadratus lumborum, psoas major, external obliques, portions of the internal oblique, rectus abdominis, gluteus medius, and adductor complex.

Movement System

• Movement system includes muscles that attach the spine and/or pelvis to the extremities. These muscles are primarily responsible for concentric force production and eccentric deceleration during dynamic activities. Primary muscles that make up movement system include latissimus dorsi, hip flexors, hamstring complex, and quadriceps.
• Collectively all muscles within each system provide dynamic stabilization and neuromuscular control of entire core (LPHC). These produce force(concentric), reduce force(eccentric), and provide dynamic stabilization in all planes of movement during functional activities. In isolation, these muscles do not effectively achieve stabilization of LPHC; rather it is through their synergistic interdependent functioning that they enhance stability and neuromuscular control.
• Training movement system muscles before training muscles of global and local stabilization systems would not make sense from structural and biomechanical standpoint. Doing so would be analogous to building a house with no foundaiton.

Importance of Properly Training the Stabilization Systems

• Some active individuals have developed strength, power, and muscular endurance in the movement system, which enables them to perform functional activites. Few people have developed the local stabilization muscles required for intervertebral stabilization. The body’s core stabilization system has to be operating with maximal eficiency to effectively use the strength, power, and endurance that has been developed in prime movers. If movement system musculature of the core is strong and local stabilization system is weak, the kinetic chain senses imbalance and forces are not transferred or used properly. This leads to compensation, synergistic dominance, and inefficient movements.
• Weak core can lead to inefficient movement and predictable patterns of injury. Resulting in lower back pain and injury.

Scientific Rationale for Core Stabilization Training

• Individuals with chronic LBP have decreased activation of certain muscles or muscle groups, including transverse abdominis, internal obliques, pelvic floor muscles, multifius, diaphram, and deep erector spinae. Also waeaker back extensor muscles and decreased muscular endurance. 
• Studies support role of core training in prevention and rehabilitation of lower back pain. Core stabilization exercises restore size, activation, and endurance of multifidus(deep spine muscle) in individuals with lower back pain. Programs that include specific core stabilization training tend to be more effective than manual therapy alone.
• Drawing-in Maneuver – Used to recruit the local core stabilizers by drawing the navel in toward the spine.
• Bracing – Occurs when you have contracted both the abdominal, lower back, and buttock muscles at the same time.
• Traditional low-back hyperextension exercises without proper lumbo-pelvic-hip stabilization have been shown to increase pressure on discs to dangerous levels.

Drawing-in Maneuver

• Research has demonstrated electromyogram (EMG) activity is increased during pelvic stabilization and transverse abdominis activation when an abdominal drawing maneuver is initiated before activity.
• Transverse abdominis, when properly activated, creates tension in thoracolumbar fascia, contributing to spinal stiffness, and compresses sacroiliac joint, increasing stability.
• Pull region just below navel toward spine and maintain cervical spine in neutral position. Maintaining neutral spine during core training helps improve posture, muscle balance, and stabilization. If forward protruding head is noticed during drawing-in maneuver, sternocleidmastoid (large neck muscle) is preferentially recruited, which increases the compressive forces in the cervical spine and can lead to pelvic instability and muscle imbalances as a result of the pelvo-ocular reflex. Important to maintain the eyes level during movement.

Bracing

• Co-contraction of global muscles, such as rectus abdominis, external obliques, and quadratus lumborum. Muscular endurance of global and local musculature, when contracted together, create the most benefit for those with LBP compared with traditional LBP training methods. 
• Bracing focuses on global trunk stability, not on segmental vertebral stability, meaning that the global muscles, given the proper endurance training, will work to stabilize the spine.

Guidelines for Core Training

• Core training should be systematic, progressive, functional, and emphasize the entire muscle action spectrum focusing on force production, force reduction, and dynamic stabilization. Core training program should regularly manipulate plane of motion, range of motion, modalities(tubing, stability ball, medicine ball, Bosu ball, Airex pad, etc.) body position, amount of control, speed of execution, amount of feedback, and specific acute training variables(sets, reps, intensity, tempo, and frequency).
• When designing core training program, personal trainer should initially create a proprioceptively enriched(controlled yet unstable) selecting appropriate exercises to elicit maximal training response.
• Core exercises performed in unstable environment(such as with stability ball) have been demonstrated to increase activation of local and global stabilization systems when compared to traditional trunk exercises.
• Safe and challenging, stress multiple planes in a multisensory environment derived from fundamental movement skills specific to activity.

Designing a Core Training Program

• Goal of core training is to develop optimal levels of neuromuscular efficiency, stability(intervertebral and lumbopelvic stability-local and global stabilization systems) and functional strength(movement system). Neural adaptations become focus of program instead of absolute strength gains. 
• Increasing proprioceptive demand is more important than increasing external resistance.
• Quality of movement should be stressed over quantity.
• Client beings at highest level at which they are able to maintain stability and optimal neuromuscular control(coordinated movement). Progresses through program once mastery of exercise in previous level has been achieved while demonstrating intervertebral stability and lumbopelvic stability. Client has appropriate lumbopelvic stability when able to perform functional movement patterns(squats, lunges, step-ups, single-leg movements) without excessive spinal motion(flexion, extension, lateral flexion, rotation, singly or in combination). Critical that core training program is designed to achieve following functional outcomes:
• Intervertebral stability, lumbopelvic stability, movement efficiency

Levels of core training

• Three levels of training within OPT model, stabilization, strength, power, proper core training program follows same systematic progression.
• Core-Stabilization Training – Exercises involve little motion through the spine and pelvis. Designed to improve neuromuscular efficiency and intervertebral stability, focusing on drawing-in and then bracing during the exercises. Traditionally spend 4 weeks at this level of core training.
• Core Strength – Involve more dynamic eccentric and concentric movements of the spine throughout full range of motion while clients perform the activation techniques learned in core-stabilization training. Specificity, speed, and neural demands are progressed at this level. Traditionally spend 4 weeks at this level of core training.
• Core Power – Improve rate of force production of core musculature. Prepare an individual to dynamically stabilize and generate force at more functionally applicable speeds. Rotation chest pass, medicine ball pullover throw, front MB oblique throw, soccer throw.
• Core musculature helps protect spine from harmful forces that occur during functional activities. Core program designed to increase stabilization, strength, power, muscle endurance, and neuromuscular control in LPHC. Core training programs must be systematic, progressive, activity or goal-specific, integrated, and proprioceptively challenging. Proper core training follows same systematic approach as OPT model: stabilization, strength, and power.

Implementing a Core Training Program

• Requires that fitness professional follow progression of OPT model. Ex if client is in stabilization level(phase 1) select core stabilization exercises. For client in strength level, select core-strength exercises.